Table of Contents
Preface ix
Acknowledgments xiii
1 Inventing Temperature 1
1.1 Hot and Cold 1
1.2 Thermometers 1
1.3 Empirical Temperature 4
1.4 The Problem of Nomic Measurement 4
1.5 Linearity, the Method of Mixtures, and Reproducibility 7
1.6 Air Thermometers 8
Daniel G. Fahrenheit, 1724 10
2 Heat and Caloric 13
2.1 Quantifying and Conserving Heat 13
2.2 Caloric 15
2.3 The Motion We Call Heat 17
2.4 Heat in Thermodynamics 18
Joseph Black, 1764 19
Antoine Lavoisier, 1789 23
Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford), 1798 28
3 Carnot's Analysis 35
3.1 Steam Engines 35
3.2 Carnot's Law 36
3.3 Carnot's Waterwheel 38
3.4 Carnot's Engine 39
3.5 Reversibility and Carnot's Theorem 42
3.6 Carnot's Function 43
Sadi Carnot, 1824 46
4 Absolute Temperature 61
4.1 William Thomson 61
4.2 Thomson's 1848 Definition of Absolute Temperature 62
4.3 Carnot's Function Revealed 64
4.4 Prelude and Postlude 65
William Thomson (Kelvin), 1848 66
5 Mechanical Equivalent of Heat 75
5.1 Caloric: Conserved or Consumed? 75
5.2 Julius Robert von Mayer 77
5.3 Mechanical Equivalent of Heat 78
5.4 James joule 82
Robert von Mayer, 1842 85
James Joule, 1845 92
6 First Law of Thermodynamics 97
6.1 Rudolf Clausius 97
6.2 System, State, and Boundary 99
6.3 The First Law 101
6.4 Energy in Thermodynamic and Newtonian Systems 103
6.5 The Conservation of Energy 103
Rudolf Clausius, 1850 105
Rudolf Clausius, 1854 108
7 Second Law of Thermodynamics 113
7.1 The Independence of the First and Second Laws 113
7.2 Carnot's Second Law 115
7.3 Clausius's Second Law 117
7.4 Thomson's Second Law 118
7.5 "As Many Formulations" 120
Rudolf Clausius, 1863 121
8 Absolute Temperature-Again 127
8.1 Another Try 127
8.2 Thomson's Simple Choice 130
8.3 Absolute Zero 132
8.4 The 1848 and 1851 Definitions Harmonized 133
William Thomson (Kelvin), 1851 134
9 Entropy 137
9.1 The Word Entropy 137
9.2 Incrementing Entropy 138
9.3 Entropy's Deep Foundations 139
9.4 Clausius's Theorem Illustrated 141
9.5 But What Is Entropy, Really? 142
Rudolf Clausius, 1862 144
10 Law of Entropy Nondecrease 149
10.1 Irreversible Heat Transfer 149
10.2 Irreversible Work 151
10.3 The Law of Entropy Nondecrease 153
11 The Fate of the Universe? 157
11.1 Energy Dissipation 157
11.2 Universal Heat Death 158
Rudolf Clausius, 1865 160
12 Classical Thermodynamics 163
12.1 The Third Law 163
12.2 The Zeroth Law 164
12.3 Einstein on Classical Thermodynamics 165
Annotated Bibliography 169
Index 173