Table of Contents
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
1 What Is an Epiphyte? 7
Getting to Know the Epiphytes 2
Body Plans 8
The Epidermis 11
Other Notable Features of the Epiphytes 11
Starting at the Beginning 12
Geological History 14
Geographic Distribution 15
Use by Humans 17
Conservation 18
2 The Types of Epiphytes and Their Evolutionary Origins 20
The Free-Living Epiphytes 23
The Biological Underpinnings of Epiphytism 33
How Epiphytism Evolved 34
The Taxonomic Affiliations of the Epiphytes 37
Genetic Heritage and Evolutionary Options 37
Epiphytism and Speciation 39
3 Epiphytes in Communities and Ecosystems 42
The Nature of Aerial Habitats 43
Mineral Nutrients 45
Water 47
Light 49
Epiphytes as Members of Communities 53
Random Factors Also Structure Communities 54
Ecological Succession 56
What Makes a Tree a Host for Epiphytes? 58
How Epiphytes Can Impact Their Hosts 59
Nutritional Piracy 61
Additional Ways That Epiphytes Harm Their Hosts 63
Manifold Effects on Ecosystems 64
4 Water Management 66
Variations on Basic Themes 66
How Biological Structure Relates to Function 67
Water Management 68
How Epiphytes Cope with Drought 71
Drought Avoidance 73
Leaf Economics 73
Roots 75
Leaves as Proxies for Roots 78
5 Photosynthesis and Mineral Nutrition 83
The Photosynthetic Syndromes 83
C3 versus CAM-type Photosynthesis 85
Light and Adaptive Growth 87
Mineral Nutrition 89
The Mistletoes 94
6 Reproduction and Other Interactions with Animals 98
Pollination 98
Fruits and Seeds 102
Asexual Reproduction 105
Plant Defenses 106
Ants and Epiphytes 106
Termites 110
Leafy Tanks and Phytotelms 112
Case Studies 114
7 The Epiphytic Monocots 119
Orchidaceae 121
The Vegetative Body 121
Reproduction and Speciation 123
The Adaptive Types 126
Bromeliaceae 127
Bromeliads versus Orchids 129
Adaptations for Epiphytism 129
Hemi-epiphytism 132
The Atmospheric Bromeliads 134
Araceae 136
Amaryllidaceae and Additional Families in Order Liliales 140
8 The Epiphytic Eudicots 142
Cactaceae 143
General Characteristics 143
Adaptations for Epiphytism 145
Evolutionary History 145
Ecology 148
Reproduction 148
Ericaceae 149
Adaptations for Epiphytism 150
Epiphytism and Speciation 151
Reproductive Biology 151
Horticulture 151
Gesneriaceae 152
Adaptive Variety 153
Evolutionary History 153
Reproductive Biology 155
Rubiaceae 156
Melastomataceae 158
Apocynaceae 159
Solanaceae 161
9 The Pteridophytic Epiphytes 162
The Major Groups of Pteridophytes 166
The Ferns 167
The Lycophytes 179
10 Miscellaneous Epiphytes 182
Piperaceae 182
The Carnivorous Epiphytes 184
The Stranglers and Other Primary Hemi-epiphytes 187
The Gymnosperms 189
Additional Oddities 190
11 Threats and Conservation 796
How Epiphytes Influence Microclimates 197
Contributions to Biodiversity 197
Global Change 198
Excess Nutrients 201
Plant Invasions 201
Habitat Loss 202
Glossary 205
References 219
Subject Index 225
Taxon Index 235
Color plates follow page 48
