The New History of Korean Civilization

Throughout its 4,000-year history, Korea has created a vibrant and unique culture. Unfortunately, many believe it developed solely due to China's influence, thus leaving no room for an independent history and culture. This is simply wrong.

The New History of Korean Civilization explores the existence of a distinctive Korean culture established by the Korean people and separate from its Chinese and Japanese counterparts. Author Chai-Shin Yu, distinguished professor of Korean studies, surveys the history of cultural life in Korea and provides a detailed account of this country's remarkable heritage.

From the prehistoric age through the rise of the Chosŏn Dynasty and up to the creation of the Republic of Korea, this concise history traces the development of history, politics, philosophy, religion, literature, and art. Chai-Shin Yu shows how Korean culture also played a vital role in the formation of Japanese culture.

Written for the purpose of introducing the roots of Korean culture to Westerners and second-generation Koreans living in the West, The New History of Korean Civilization is a bold addition to the historiography of Korea.

ISBN-13: 9781462055593

Media Type: Paperback

Publisher: iUniverse - Incorporated

Publication Date: 01-05-2012

Pages: 352

Product Dimensions: 6.00(w) x 9.00(h) x 0.79(d)

Read an Excerpt

The New History of Korean Civilization

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By Chai-Shin Yu

iUniverse, Inc.

Copyright © 2012 Chai-Shin Yu
All right reserved.
ISBN: 978-1-4620-5559-3

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Chapter One

Prehistoric Culture of Korea

1. Paleolithic Age Cultures of Korea

• The Remains of Paleolithic Age Cultures

Archaeological evidence suggests that humans began living in an area encompassing the Korean Peninsula and Northeastern Manchuria hundreds of thousands of years ago. Prior to the early 1960s the presence of humans in this region before the Neolithic, or New Stone Age, was not generally accepted. The discovery, since then, of many Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) remains has confirmed the existence of Paleolithic cultures in this region.

The excavation of Korean Paleolithic remains began in earnest the 1960s. The excavations at Kulpo-ri in Unggi and Sokchang-ni in Kongju in 1964 confirmed the existence of Paleolithic cultures on the Korean Peninsula. More than fifty Paleolithic sites have since been excavated in Korea, including the Black Anvil Cave site and the Chngchngam Cave site.

The Paleolithic Age is divided into three eras: the Upper (over 100,000 years ago), the Middle (100-50,000 years ago) and the Lower (50-10,000 years ago)with the above sites suggesting that humans or hominids were already present on the Korean Peninsula by the early Paleolithic.

The Sokchang-ni site and the Black Anvil Cave site, which date from the Upper Paleolithic, contain some of the oldest materials found in Korea. The Chonggong-ni site is the first site in Asia where a hand-axe of the European Acheulian type was found and a vast array of Paleolithic materials have been found throughout 'Old Choson,' in which region is included both the Korean Peninsula and Manchuria. The Paleolithic inhabitants of Manchuria are thought to be very closely related to the people living within the Korean Peninsula. Further comparative research on this subject is needed.

• Paleolithic People and Their Habitat

Base on archeological evidence, it is clear that hominids were living on the Korean Peninsula more than a hundred-thousand years ago, and that they continued to live in the region throughout the Paleolithic period. It is not certain, however, whether the Korean people of today are descendants of the Paleolithic inhabitants of the peninsula.

During the ice ages, the peninsula went through four freezing and three melting stages, with each state bringing extreme changes to the coastline, and at times there were land-bridges between China, Korea, and Japan, easing migration between these regions. These climatic changes forced the migration of both humans and animals. During the freezing stages northern animals and plants would migrate south, and during the melting stages southern life-forms would migrate north. Many scholars hypothesize that the extreme climate changes that occurred during the ice ages would have repeatedly forced the Paleolithic inhabitants of the region to migrate to other regions in search of food. This supports the "Discontinuity Theory," which argues that the Paleolithic inhabitants of the region have little or no connection to the current inhabitants. In contrast, the "Continuity Theory" presents the argument that the Paleolithic inhabitants are directly connected to both the Neolithic and contemporary Korean people. New DNA studies suggest that the actual ancestors of the Korean people may possibly be connected to those that lived in the region during the Late Paleolithic.

Based on skulls found at various cave sites it is also known that the Early Paleolithic inhabitants of the Korean Peninsula had large brow ridges and long jaws. When these skulls are compared to the present day Korean people it is difficult to find a connection due to the differences in tooth structure and the lower jaw bone, and the present day people's lack of a brow ridge.

• Paleolithic Arts and Religion

Artistic remains from the Paleolithic period have been found at the site of Sokchangni, in the city of Gongjoo, South Korea. At the front of the dig stand stone images in the likeness of dogs, whales and mountain pigs. There are also sculptures carved into cobblestones depicting humans, birds and deer. These sculptures reflect not only the simplicity of Paleolithic art but also the religious meaning of life in the Paleolithic period. Both two-and three-dimensional figures appear to depict hunting and other daily activities, and include incantations soliciting a prosperous hunt. The incantations also seem to be related to totemism. Three things can be surmised regarding the sculptures and their purpose: (1) people made animal sculptures to elicit a successful hunt; (2) sculptures were also created to commemorate those who had passed away; (3) in addition, sculptures were used to pray for safety from harmful animals and/or diseases and to ensure a peaceful life.

• Paleolithic Society

The Paleolithic people's tool kit consisted mainly of tools made of stone and bone. The analysis of the remains at Sokchang-ni reveal a progression of stone tool use, with first whole stones, then stone fragments with single chipped edges, and finally with double-edged chopping tools. It is obvious from this evidence that the main way of life of these people was food gathering, including hunting, fishing and fruit-picking.

The main housing units of the Korean Paleolithic were cave dwellings, but based on the finds from the flatlands of Sokchang-ni it is apparent that Paleolithic people also had other types of dwellings. Evidence of artistic production was also found at the Sokchang-ni site.

2. The Korean Neolithic Period

• The Neolithic Culture and Its Remains

The Korean Paleolithic ended approximately ten-thousand years ago with the end of the last ice age and the arrival of the Mesolithic period. Stone tools continued to be used during the Mesolithic era, but the tool kit become more elaborate. Instead of simple chipped tools people gradually began to use tools of various shapes. Many different spear and arrowhead attachments from this period have been uncovered. Such tools have been found throughout Korea, specifically in the top cultural section of the Sokchang-ni site in Kongju, the Hawhague-ri site in Hongchn and in the shellfish midden of Sangnodaedo in Tong'yong. However, conclusive evidence has not been uncovered by which these finds can be revealed to represent a distinct era. The debate concerning the Mesolithic era is related to the controversy as to whether there is a connection between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic on the Korean Peninsula.

The Mesolithic is followed by the Neolithic, which, in Korea, spans the period between 6,000 B.C. and 5,000 B.C. The era is characterized by the emergence of polished stone tools and pottery, and most scholars suggest that agriculture began during the later part of the Neolithic.

Whereas the Paleolithic inhabitants of Korea only produced rudimentary chipped stone tools, the Neolithic inhabitants began using elaborately made polished stone tools. The simple chipped stone tools of the early Neolithic were similar to those tools that had been used during the late Paleolithic, but by the late Neolithic these were replaced by a wide variety of tools, including semilunar stone knives. The methods used by Neolithic peoples for making stone tools were both more advanced and more varied than those used by Paleolithic peoples.

The use of pottery during the Neolithic indicates that the people of that era were both cooking and storing food. This also suggests that Neolithic people were leading a more sedentary lifestyle than had Paleolithic people. Since the shape and design of pottery is usually culturally specific it is very valuable in studying cultural connections. The typical pottery found in Korean Neolithic sites is Comb-Pattern Pottery (Pit'sal munui t'ogi), also sometimes referred to as Geometric Pottery. Some scholars argue that this type of pottery is found not only in Korea but also in an area that stretches from Siberia all the way to the Scandinavian Peninsula, and according to this theory, the similarity between the types of pottery indicates a connection between Korea and the so-called Northern Eurasian Kammkeramik (comb-pattern pottery) culture.

The pottery culture of Neolithic Korea is commonly divided into three stages. During the early period (6,000-3,500 B.C.), the pottery found on the west coast was the most standard in form, and was characterized by sharp bottoms and the use of artwork on the entire vessel. On the east coast, in the lower levels of the Osan-ni site in Yang'yang in the Kangwon Province, the pottery is also flat-bottomed and has patterns around the rim. Is characterized by On the East coast, in the shell midden of Tongsam-dong, the pottery of this early era had flat bottoms and partial designs on the surface. On the South coast, pottery of this era has been found in Pusan. The pottery found there includes styles of pottery that precede Comb-pattern pottery, including Raised-design pottery and pottery without decorations.

During the Middle Neolithic, divergences from the regular comb-pattern can be seen in pottery remains from the shell middens found on the islands on the south-west coast of Korea. In this region it is noticeable that lower surface of the pottery is without patterning. At this time, on the east and south coasts, pottery of this type almost completely disappeared from the west coast—instead, pottery in which only the rim area was decorated became prevalent—and the east and south coast soon followed a similar pattern. Pottery in northwestern Korea and northeastern Manchuria came to be influenced by Chinese Neolithic pottery culture—often colored, with fretwork; and the vessels were often flat-bottomed.

• The Neolithic People and Their Environment

As was indicated earlier, the Korean Neolithic cultures had cultural connections with the Siberian Neolithic cultures and cultures of Northern China, and three stages of change can be seen through the different shapes and designs of pottery. This theory is based on the premise that the migration into the Korean peninsula of various groups—now distinguished by their different pottery styles—contributed to the formation of Korean Neolithic culture. Pre-comb-pattern pottery people (including people who used undecorated pottery and people who used Raised-design Pottery) are the oldest of the Neolithic people in the Korean peninsula. They are believed to be a branch of the Paleoasiatic people who had migrated south from Siberia. Comb-pattern Pottery is also found in Siberia, so the emergence of comb-pattern pottery culture seems likely to have been the result of another migration of another group of Paleoasiatic peoples. According to DNA research on the current Korean people, 70% of the Korean inheritance appears to derive from Northern people, and 30% to derive from people of Southern China.

The Neolithic period is characterized by pottery production and the working of obsidian stone, as well as by the beginning of farming and livestock husbandry. Food gathering was still prevalent at the beginning of the Korean Neolithic culture, with farming being introduced only near the end of the Neolithic period. The presence of weights used on fishing nets and fish-hooks found together with remains of early Neolithic dwellings suggest that fish continued to be the main source of food. In addition, the presence of stone arrowheads and spearheads in Neolithic dwellings indicates the continued importance of hunting. Stone plowing hoes, semi-lunar stone knifes used for harvesting and milling stones have been found in sites associated with the very late Neolithic, suggesting that farming begun at about that time. Adding more support to this theory, fossilized grains have also been found in Hwanghae Province in sites associated with the end of the Neolithic.

There are two basic types of dwellings that have been uncovered from the Korean Neolithic: cave dwellings and pit dwellings—the latter being the more common form. These pit dwellings are typically circular or square with round angles, with a stove pot in the center for cooking and heating, an entrance facing southeast or southwest for maximum sun exposure, and a storage pit either next to the stove pot or by the entrance. These pit dwellings are usually five meters in diameter, about sixty centimeters deep, and eighteen square meters in area. They would have been suitable for the residence of approximately four people. The number of dwellings found on a particular site suggests that Korean Neolithic settlements were small in size.

• Society and Religion in the Neolithic Period

During the Neolithic period the "bands" of the Paleolithic coalesced into larger "tribes." It is believed that these tribal societies were not differentiated according to status. The leaders of the various tribes would have governed largely through consent and consensus—they would not have been 'rulers' who could impose their will on the communities that they governed. Still the tribal system established a larger community with a farming settlement, and the beginnings of more complex social relationships. Societies of this type are generally regarded as polities based on equality where all members had the same rights and important matters were decided in a clan meeting. Usually, the clan leader kept his group closed off from the outside and only gradually made contact with other clans, a process which resulted in the formation of larger tribes.

The religion of the Neolithic people was based on "animism," the belief that spirits live within all living things, and was usually expressed by worshipping many different objects. Shamanism, a belief in sorcery, and a belief in the afterlife for human beings, was widespread and popular in the Neolithic period. The connections between Korean Neolithic cultures and Siberia also created a link with the shamanism of Siberia. "Totemism," the worshipping of animals or other natural objects that had been chosen and respected as special symbols of the tribe, was also prevalent during the Neolithic in Korea. These animals or plants were believed to be the origin of a clan. The bear totem of the "Tan'gun myth," the story of the founding father of Korea, exemplifies this. Tigers, horses, chickens, and other animals are also believed to have been worshipped as totems.

3. The Korean Bronze Age and the Chiefdom Society

• Bronze Age Culture

The Bronze Age in Korea began around 1000 B.C. with the migration of tribes with knowledge of bronze technology. In contrast to the Comb-Pattern Pottery cultures, the early cultures of the Bronze Age are characterized by pottery without any designs—the so-called Plain Pottery. Such pottery is found in Bronze Age excavation sites where Liaoning-type bronze daggers were also found. Liaoning-type bronze daggers have been found in Northeastern China and the Korean Peninsula, indicating a strong connection between these regions.

The typical pottery of this of Bronze Age is reddish-brown. It is either conical or cylindrical with a rounded bottom. This change in pottery style suggests the occurrence of a major cultural change in the region. The people of the Comb-Pattern Pottery Culture were, as we have seen above, likely paleo-Asiatic. The people of the Plain Pottery Culture are generally thought to have belonged to the "Yemek," an Altaic people. In any case, the Plain Pottery Culture seems to have entered Korea together with bronze production. Although the Comb-pattern Pottery Culture and the Plain Pottery Culture are considered to be separate cultures, there are instances where both types of pottery have been found at the same site, suggesting that Comb-pattern Pottery Culture was absorbed into, or greatly influenced by, Plain Pottery Culture.

Liaoning-type bronze daggers are the main artifact to survive from Old Choson. They were used from 800 to 700 B.C. These daggers had curved blades resembling a musical instrument called the pi'pa, and so are often called pi'pa-shaped, lute-shaped or mandolin-shaped bronze daggers. This kind of dagger was produced mainly in the Liaoning and Jilin Provinces in Manchuria (within the present-day People's Republic of China) and on the Korean Peninsula. The Liaoning-type dagger distinguishes Old Choson culture from Chinese Bronze Age culture. It is shaped differently from the daggers made in China proper. Also, and in contrast to China proper, in which the dagger was made in one piece, the handle and blade of the Liaoning-type dagger were made separately.

(Continues...)

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Excerpted from The New History of Korean Civilization by Chai-Shin Yu Copyright © 2012 by Chai-Shin Yu. Excerpted by permission of iUniverse, Inc.. All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.
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Table of Contents

Contents

Preface....................vii
Introduction....................xi
Chapter I. Prehistoric Culture of Korea....................1
1 Paleolithic Age Cultures of Korea....................1
2 The Korean Neolithic Period....................5
3 The Korean Bronze Age and the Chiefdom Society....................8
4 Transformation of the Ancient Society....................15
Chapter II. Ancient Society....................25
1 Political Developments....................25
2 Society and Economy during the Ancient Period....................33
3 The Development of Three Kingdoms Culture....................41
Chapter III. The Middle Ages of Korea....................63
1 The Development of the Koryo Dynasty....................63
2 The Economy and Society of the Koryo Dynasty....................78
3 The Culture of the Koryo Dynasty....................90
Chapter IV. The Beginnings of Early Modern Society....................124
1 The Rise of the Choson Dynasty....................124
2 Society and Economy in the Early Choson....................133
3 Philosophy and Culture in the Early Choson Dynasty....................141
4 Literature and Art in Early Chosón Dynasty....................150
5 Foreign Relations in the Early Choson Period....................154
Chapter V. Late Choson Society....................163
1 Politics and Economics in the Late Choson....................163
4 The Collapse of the Governing System and Opposition From the People....................184
5 The Acceptance of Catholicism and the Establishment of Tonghak....................187
Chapter VI. Beginnings of Modern Society....................191
1 The Establishment of Modern Society....................191
2 The Period of National Independence Movements....................225
Chapter VII. The Development of Modern Society....................245
1 The Foundation of the Republic of Korea and the National Division....................245
Glossary....................265
Index....................275
Photos....................281
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